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Rockwell International Space Shuttle Orbiter

Rockwell International · Reusable Spaceplane · USA · Cold War (1970–1991)

The Space Shuttle — formally the Space Transportation System, or STS — was NASA's partially-reusable astronaut-carrying launch vehicle and spaceplane, flown from 1981 to 2011. Three principal elements made up each stack: the winged Orbiter that carried crew and payload, the disposable External Tank that fed propellant to its main engines, and a pair of reusable Solid Rocket Boosters. Together they formed the world's first reusable piloted spacecraft, and the system served as NASA's primary means of putting astronauts in orbit for 30 years. Five Orbiters flew missions with astronauts aboard — Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour — while a sixth, Enterprise, was used only for atmospheric approach-and-landing tests.

STS-1 launched on 12 April 1981, with John Young and Robert Crippen taking Columbia on a 54-hour orbital shakedown. Later flights expanded the mission set to include commercial and government communications-satellite deployment, the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope on STS-31 in April 1990, roughly 36 ISS-assembly missions between 1998 and 2011, Spacelab and SpaceHab science flights, satellite servicing and retrieval, and national-security payloads. Payload mass was around 25 tonnes to LEO and 18 tonnes returned from LEO — a down-mass figure essentially unique to Shuttle and never matched since. A typical mission carried a crew of 5 to 7 along with extensive science and payload hardware.

Two accidents destroyed entire crews. The Challenger disaster (STS-51-L, 28 January 1986) struck 73 seconds after liftoff: an O-ring seal in the right SRB failed, hot gas penetrated the External Tank, and the SRB-to-Tank attach points ruptured, killing all 7 crew members. The Columbia disaster (STS-107, 1 February 2003) occurred during reentry, after foam shed from the External Tank during ascent had damaged the left-wing leading-edge tile system; reentry plasma penetrated the wing and destroyed the vehicle, again killing all 7 crew. The two losses triggered programme reviews and flight pauses of 32 months after Challenger and 30 months after Columbia. They also pushed NASA toward expendable replacements: SLS / Orion for beyond-LEO astronaut missions, and commercial crew via Falcon 9 / Crew Dragon for ISS service.

Across 1981–2011 the Shuttle flew 135 missions, returning safely 133 times. The fleet deployed Hubble, serviced it on four subsequent flights, launched commercial and government satellites, and assembled the International Space Station as the principal heavy-payload construction platform. The final flight, STS-135, was flown by Atlantis between 8 and 21 July 2011. The four survivors are now on permanent display: Discovery at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy facility (Chantilly, Virginia); Atlantis at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex; Endeavour at the California Science Center in Los Angeles; and Enterprise at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum in New York. The legacy is mixed — Hubble servicing, ISS assembly, and unique down-mass performance set against ~$1.5 billion per flight in inflation-adjusted dollars, immense day-to-day complexity, and two lost crews.

For Kids — a shorter, friendlier version

The Space Shuttle was the world's first reusable spacecraft. From 1981 to 2011, NASA flew five different Space Shuttles on 135 missions. Each Shuttle was about 122 feet long — bigger than a regular jet airliner.

The Shuttles launched into space like rockets. They did work in orbit and then glided back down to land on a runway, just like airplanes. Each Shuttle could fly into space and come home many times.

Each Space Shuttle had three parts. A big white orbiter (the airplane part) carried up to 8 astronauts. Two skinny white rocket boosters on the sides gave most of the lift-off power. A huge orange fuel tank in the middle held the liquid fuel.

The five Shuttles were named after famous ships: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour. Two were lost — Challenger exploded in January 1986. Columbia broke apart in February 2003. All 14 astronauts on those flights were lost.

NASA retired the Space Shuttle in 2011. The remaining Shuttles are now in museums. The Shuttle launched the Hubble Space Telescope and helped build the International Space Station. Today SpaceX's reusable rockets do the work the Shuttle used to do.

Fun Facts

The Space Shuttle flew 135 missions between 1981 and 2011 — about 30 years of work.
Each Shuttle took off like a rocket and landed like an airplane on a runway.
Five Shuttles were built: Columbia, Challenger, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour.
The Shuttle helped launch the Hubble Space Telescope and built most of the International Space Station.
Two Shuttles were lost — Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003. All 14 astronauts aboard were lost.
The Shuttle could carry up to 8 astronauts and 60,000 pounds of cargo to space.
The Shuttle's heat-shield tiles got hotter than 2,500°F during reentry — but the inside stayed cool enough for astronauts.

Kids’ Questions

Why did NASA stop using the Space Shuttle?

The Space Shuttle was expensive (about \$1.5 billion per launch by the end) and had been flying for 30 years. After the Columbia disaster in 2003, NASA decided to retire the Shuttle and focus on going back to the Moon with a new program called Constellation (which was later canceled and replaced by Artemis). NASA also wanted private companies (like SpaceX) to take over carrying cargo and astronauts to the International Space Station — which would be cheaper and let NASA focus on deep-space missions to the Moon and Mars.

Could I visit a real Space Shuttle?

Yes! Three Space Shuttles are now in museums where you can walk close to them. Discovery is at the Smithsonian's Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington DC — you can walk right under it. Endeavour is at the California Science Center in Los Angeles. Atlantis is at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Florida — it's tilted at an angle, with the cargo bay doors open, so you can see what space looked like for astronauts inside. The fourth Shuttle, Enterprise (which never went to space, only test glides), is at the Intrepid Museum in New York City.

Variants

OV-099 Challenger: Second to enter service. First flew on STS-6 in April 1983 and completed 9 successful missions, among them STS-7 (Sally Ride, first U.S. female astronaut) and STS-41-G (Kathryn Sullivan, first U.S. spacewalk by a woman). Lost on STS-51-L on 28 January 1986; the entire crew of 7 was killed.
OV-102 Columbia: First to enter service. STS-1 on 12 April 1981 made it the first Shuttle to reach orbit. Flew 28 missions covering early science, DoD, and commercial-satellite deployment. Lost on STS-107 on 1 February 2003 when wing-tile damage caused reentry breakup; all 7 crew killed.
OV-103 Discovery: Third to enter service and the most-flown of the fleet at 39 missions. First flight was STS-41-D in August 1984. Missions included STS-26 (Return to Flight after Challenger), STS-31 (Hubble deployment), STS-95 (John Glenn's return to space at age 77), and ISS assembly flights. Final mission STS-133, 24 February – 9 March 2011.
OV-104 Atlantis: Fourth to enter service. First flight STS-51-J in October 1985, followed by 33 missions in total. Closed the programme with STS-135 (8–21 July 2011). Highlights included STS-125 (the final Hubble servicing mission), ISS assembly flights, and Mir docking missions.
OV-105 Endeavour: Fifth and newest of the fleet, built post-Challenger between 1987 and 1991. First flew on STS-49 in May 1992 and completed 25 missions, including the final SLR mission STS-134. Now preserved at the California Science Center, Los Angeles.

Notable Operators

NASA / Space Transportation System: Sole operator. The NASA Space Transportation System programme flew five Orbiters — Challenger, Columbia, Discovery, Atlantis, and Endeavour — from 1981 to 2011. Work was divided across NASA Kennedy (launch), NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (Solid Rocket Boosters), NASA Johnson (mission control), and the supporting contractor base.
NASA astronaut corps: Around 852 individual astronaut spaceflights took place across 135 missions, making Shuttle the largest piloted spaceflight programme ever flown. Crew members included John Young (commander of STS-1 and earlier of Apollo 16), Sally Ride (first U.S. female astronaut, STS-7, 1983), Guy Bluford (first African-American astronaut, STS-8, 1983), and Eileen Collins (first female Shuttle commander, STS-93, 1999), among many others.
International partners: International cooperation included the European Space Agency (ESA Spacelab missions and the Columbus module to ISS), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA, with the Kibo module to ISS), the Canadian Space Agency (Canadarm on every flight, plus Canadarm2 to ISS), and the Russian Federal Space Agency (Mir docking missions and ISS assembly cooperation). ESA, JAXA, and CSA astronauts also flew as crew on multiple Shuttle missions.
Preservation / display: Discovery: Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy facility (Chantilly, Virginia). Atlantis: Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex (Florida). Endeavour: California Science Center (Los Angeles). Enterprise: Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum (New York). All four draw heavy public attendance.

Frequently Asked Questions

How many Shuttle missions were there?

135 missions in total between 12 April 1981 (STS-1) and 21 July 2011 (STS-135). 133 returned safely; two ended in catastrophic loss — Challenger STS-51-L on 28 January 1986 and Columbia STS-107 on 1 February 2003. Total astronaut time aboard Shuttle came to roughly 130,000 hours in orbit, and 355 unique individuals flew at least one Shuttle mission.

Why was the Shuttle retired?

Several factors converged. Per-flight cost ran around $1.5 billion in inflation-adjusted 2024 dollars, against roughly $70 million for a Falcon 9 launch; the Challenger (1986) and Columbia (2003) accidents had raised lasting crew-safety concerns; the Orbiter fleet was ageing and would have needed deep structural and systems work to fly past about 2010; and NASA had refocused on beyond-LEO crewed exploration through Constellation, and later Artemis, which the Shuttle could not support. The 2010 NASA budget under the Obama Administration formally cancelled the programme, STS-135 (8–21 July 2011) flew as the closing mission, and the four flightworthy Orbiters were sent to museums.

What replaced the Shuttle?

ISS crew rotation now uses NASA's Commercial Crew Program — Falcon 9 with Crew Dragon, flying since May 2020, and Boeing Starliner, which made its initial uncrewed test flight in 2024. ISS cargo is split among Falcon 9 with Cargo Dragon, Northrop Grumman Cygnus, and international cargo vehicles. Beyond-LEO astronaut missions use SLS (Space Launch System), with Artemis II as the first crewed flight planned for 2026, paired with the Orion crew capsule. No single vehicle reproduces the Shuttle's combined crew, heavy-cargo, reentry, and runway-landing role; that work is now spread across a portfolio.

How does the Shuttle compare to Saturn V?

Different missions and very different architectures. Saturn V was a 363-ft super-heavy-lift expendable launcher used for the Apollo lunar programme (1967–1973), with 100,000 lb of trans-lunar payload. Shuttle was a partially-reusable LEO piloted spaceplane (1981–2011), with 25 tonnes to LEO and 18 tonnes back from LEO. Saturn V went to the Moon; Shuttle stayed in LEO. Saturn V flew 13 times, Shuttle 135. Per-flight cost was roughly $1.2 billion for Saturn V against ~$1.5 billion for Shuttle. They reflected different national priorities: Apollo for the lunar landing, Shuttle for routine LEO work.

Where can I see a Space Shuttle Orbiter?

Four sites hold the surviving Orbiters. Discovery is at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy facility (Chantilly, Virginia, near Dulles Airport); Atlantis is at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex (Florida); Endeavour is at the California Science Center (Los Angeles); and Enterprise, an atmospheric-test article, is at the Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum (New York). All four are open to the public and serve as major tourist attractions, with the Orbiters displayed nose-up or horizontally alongside engineering exhibits.

What were the Challenger and Columbia disasters?

The two catastrophic Shuttle accidents that killed every crew member aboard. Challenger STS-51-L (28 January 1986): cold-weather brittleness caused an O-ring seal in the right SRB to fail at liftoff, letting hot gas reach the External Tank and rupture the Orbiter / SRB attach points. The vehicle broke apart 73 seconds after launch; all 7 crew were killed, including civilian teacher Christa McAuliffe. Columbia STS-107 (1 February 2003): foam shed from the External Tank during ascent had damaged the Orbiter's left-wing leading-edge tile system, and on reentry plasma penetrated the wing and destroyed the vehicle over Texas; all 7 crew were killed. Each loss triggered a programme review and a flight pause of more than 30 months.

Sources

NASA — Space Shuttle history
Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum — Space Shuttle Discovery
Wikipedia — Space Shuttle — Source extract used for grounding; CC BY-SA attribution.